How to write the theta symbol in the MS Word (On Keyboard)

Method: 1 Alt Code

Θ (lowercase theta symbol) ALT + 952

Θ (Uppercase theta symbol) ALT + 233

 

Method: 2

Lowercase Theta Code: θ (03B8 and press ALT + X)

Uppercase theta Code: Θ (0398 and Press Alt + X)

 

Method: 3

Θ (Character Map)

 

Method: 4

Θ Character Code: 03B8

Θ Character Code: 0398

 

9,000-year-old necklace found in the tomb

9,000-year-old necklace found in the tomb of an 8-year-old child, probably a girl. Made of over 2,500 beads, reconstructed by archeologists. 

olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus)

The most widely distributed of all Australasian orioles, the olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus), sometimes known as the white-bellied oriole, is a common medium-sized passerine bird found in northern and eastern Australia as well as south-central New Guinea. It is also quite noisy and noticeable. Olive-backed with little dark streaks, and with black lines running the length of its light chest, it is not a brilliant bird; females have cinnamon-edged wings, and both sexes have reddish beak and eyes. Source: CP

This picture was taken in 1950 during a routine military expedition in the Chukchi Peninsula, Soviet Union.

This picture was taken in 1950 during a routine military expedition in the Chukchi Peninsula, Soviet Union. Despite the freezing temperatures, the soldiers began to feed the starving and destitute bears and cubs on a regular basis. They would use a tin-opener to open the tin, which they would then give to the bear after it had licked all the milk, and then feed her little bears with it. Condensed milk, also known as sgushchennoye moloko in Russian, was a common dessert in the army as well.

What is a charitable trust?

A charitable trust is a gift, to be applied consistently with existing laws, for the benefit of an indefinite number of persons, either by bringing their minds or their hearts under the influence of education or religion, by relieving their bodies from disease, suffering, or constraint, by assisting them to establish themselves in life, or by erecting and maintaining public buildings or works, or otherwise lessening the burdens of government; a gift to general public use, which extends to the poor as well as the rich. To create a valid trust, sufficient words, a definite subject, and an object are necessary. In charitable trusts, the object is generally uncertain. This is because if the object were clearly defined, it would cease to be charity and be governed by trust rules.

At one time it was held that charitable trusts were created by an act passed during Queen Elizabeth's reign, known as the statute of beneficial uses. However, it has been shown that these trusts existed long before that act was passed. Charitable trusts are recognized in all States of the Union, while some States have never adopted the statute at all. It is held that trusts, even when they are not in compliance with the statute, may be considered good if they are in compliance with its spirit. Uncertainty of the object is one of the characteristics of a charitable trust, and it has led to what is known as the “cy pres” doctrine, which is that the courts will interpret instruments creating charitable trusts so that if the exact object of the donor cannot be carried out the donation will be applied to something of a nature similar to that specified by the donor.

When a testator leaves property to his executors in such a manner that they are to be the sole judges of its use, and the executors die before the testator, it is doubtful whether the trust will come into existence, as the executors were the only persons who could designate for what the donation was to be applied. In some jurisdictions, the rule is that if the property can be applied to other than charitable needs, it can be considered indefinite.

In cases in which the particular charitable purpose does not exhaust the whole fund if from the instrument creating the fund, the intention appears that the entire amount is for charity, the surplus will be devoted to another charity and will not form a resulting trust for the heir or next of kin. A gift may be made to a charity that is no longer in existence. A gift to a specific charity will not fail because of the lack of a trustee.

After the trust has come into existence, if the purpose for which the trust was created fails for any reason, it will be applied to some other purpose of a similar character, so as to fulfill as nearly as possible the purpose for which it was intended.

Charitable trusts are not subject to the rule against perpetuities, which is that property cannot be tied up for more than a life or lives in being and 21 years thereafter. If property left to a charitable trust is limited to another estate, not a charitable trust, and the first estate is in violation of the rule against perpetuities, the trust will not be sustained; but after the trust comes into existence the rule against perpetuities is not applied to it. In New York, charitable trusts are governed by the same rules as others.

By English law all bequests for charitable purposes, to be valid, must be strictly for the public benefit; that is to say, in favor of institutions for the advancement of learning, science, and art; for the support of the poor; or for other objects connected with the welfare of the public; and such bequests include those in favor of the Church or of other religious bodies sanctioned by the law.

Bequests for superstitious purposes are null and void. A body of commissioners (the charity commissioners), under whose superintendence such benevolent trusts are placed, was established under the Charitable Trusts Act of 1853. They have the power to inquire into the administration of all English public charities.

Crimson Rosella

We will know some interesting facts about Crimson Rosella. The crimson rosella is a parrot native to eastern and southeastern Australia which has been introduced to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. The crimson rosella’s colors are eye-catching, and its whistle sounds are equally enchanting. It is commonly found in, but not restricted to, mountain forests and gardens.

Lifespan

The Crimson Rosella life span is 30 years.                                                                            

Behavior

Almost all rosellas are sedentary, although occasional populations are considered nomadic; no rosellas are migratory. Outside of the breeding season, crimson rosellas tend to congregate in pairs or small groups and feeding parties. The largest groups are usually composed of juveniles, who will gather in flocks of up to 20 individuals. When they forage, they are conspicuous and chatter noisily. Rosellas are monogamous, and during the breeding season, adult birds will not congregate in groups and will only forage with their mate. According to a new study crimson rosellas can identify birds of their own subspecies based on the smell of other birds.

Distribution Habitats.

Crimson rosellas are common in coastal and mountain forests at all altitudes. They primarily live in forests and woodlands, preferring older and wetter forests. They can be found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate rainforests, both wet and dry sclerophyllous forests, riparian forests, and woodlands, all the way from sea level up to the tree line. They will also live in human-affected areas such as farmlands, pastures, fire breaks, parks, reserves, gardens, and golf courses. They are rarely found in treeless areas. At night, they roost on high tree branches.

Diet

Crimson rosellas forage in trees, bushes, and on the ground for the fruit, seeds, nectar, berries, and nuts of a wide variety of plants. Despite feeding on fruits and seeds, rosellas are not useful to the plants as seed-spreaders, because they crush and destroy the seeds in the process of eating them. Rosellas will also eat many insects and their larvae, including termites, beetles, weevils, caterpillars, moths, and water boatmen.

Rosella Care

Rosellas need space and a good diet in order to thrive. The largest cage you can afford is ideal, but be careful that the bars are the correct spacing for a bird with this head size. An aviary situation is ideal for rosellas, which will live peacefully with others of their kind in a large enough space. Crimson rosellas love to bathe, so frequent bathing opportunities are a must. This is a good way to reinforce the bond between you and your bird, and you can feed him tidbits from your plate.

Range

The crimson rosella occurs from southeastern South Australia, through Tasmania, Victoria, and coastal New South Wales into southeastern Queensland. A disparate population occurs in North Queensland. The crimson rosella is native to eastern and southeastern Australia, where it inhabits open forests, woodlands, gardens as well as parks. Its wild diet consists many of native grass seeds, herbs, fruits and flowering buds.

The harpy eagle is a neotropical species of eagle. The call is the strong, silent type, harpy eagles do not vocalize much. When heard, they wail (wheee, wheee-ooooo), croak, whistle, click, and mew. It is also called the American harpy eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is sometimes known as the New Guinea harpy eagle or Papuan harpy eagle. It is the largest and most powerful raptor found throughout its range, and among the largest extant species of eagles in the world. It usually inhabits tropical lowland rainforests in the upper canopy layer. Destruction of its natural habitat has caused it to vanish from many parts of its former range, and it is nearly extirpated from much of Central America. In Brazil, the harpy eagle is also known as royal hawk. This species is largely silent away from the nest. 

There, the adults give a penetrating, weak, melancholy scream, with the incubating males' call described as "whispy screaming or wailing". The females' calls while incubating are similar but are lower-pitched. While approaching the nest with food, the male calls out "rapid chirps, goose-like calls, and occasional sharp screams". Vocalization in both parents decreases as the age of nestlings, while the nestlings become more vocal. The nestlings call chi-chi-chi...chi-chi-chi-chi, seemingly an alarm in response to rain or direct sunlight. When humans approach the nest, the nestlings have been described as uttering croaks, quacks, and whistles.

Rare throughout its range, the harpy eagle is found from Mexico, through Central America, and into South America to as far south as Argentina. In rainforests, they live in the emergent layer. The eagle is most common in Brazil, where it is found across the entire national territory. With the exception of some areas of Panama, the species is almost extinct in Central America, subsequent to the logging of much of the rainforest there. The Harpy Eagle is the largest, most powerful raptor in the Americas, bigger even than the Golden Eagle. 

Wilson's Warbler

Wilson's Warbler is one of the smaller members of the New World warbler family (Cardellina pusilla). A long, slim tail and rounded wings distinguish this species from others. It is a greenish bird above and yellowish below. Males have a black crown patch; females have a reduced or absent mark, depending on the subspecies. The underpart is yellow and green-brown is the only distinguishing characteristic of this bird.

White-capped water redstart

The beautiful white-capped redstart or white-capped water redstart (Phoenicurus leucocephalus) is a passerine bird of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae native to the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia and to certain regions of Central Asia. Both genders are black with red underparts and white crowns atop their heads. 

Males' white-capped redstart have a larger white pattern on top of the head and brown or red spots under the wings. It is found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, as well as some adjoining areas. The species ranges across Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam. Its natural habitat is temperate forests. 

White-capped water redstart species was formerly placed in the monotypic genus Chaimarrornis but was moved to Phoenicurus based on the results of a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010.

Giggle at Meerkats of Addo Elephant National Park

There’s a good chance of seeing adorable meerkat youngsters. Few animals have the charisma of the diminutive meerkat. To properly appreciate their antics, head to a park such as Addo, in South Africa. Meerkat social life is built around a pack of ten to thirty members. The day starts with a session of grooming before a foraging expedition. A sentry is posted to cry out if a hawk flies over, but if a ground predator appears the pack jumps up and down together to give the illusion that they’re charging. Otherwise their day is spent tousling, rolling around, and playing ‘follow the leader’. Everyone pays attention to the pups that emerge from the burrows after January, and the pack takes turns at nursery duty.

Namibia: Struggle for Independence, 1970-1990

There is a view (expressed in the work of Lauren Dobell [1998], for example) that the struggle for independence in Namibia was largely fought outside the country, chiefly by the diplomacy of the externally based South West African People’s Organization (SWAPO) leadership. 

Within the country, certainly, SWAPO faced massive organizational problems, not only because of the way the population was dispersed across the land but also because the group’s attempts to organize were met with harsh repression and violent reactions. Nevertheless, at certain moments the internal struggle played an important role in the process which eventually led to independence. One of these moments came in 1971. 

After the International Court of Justice ruled that South Africa’s rule of the territory was illegal, the two main Lutheran Church leaders wrote an open letter to the South African prime minister, John Vorster, which presented a stance of open support for independence; this was the first time that the churches had identified themselves with the movement for independence. Within months, from December 1971 to March 1972, a major strike took place that involved up to 13,000 contract workers, the backbone of the Namibian labor force. The external SWAPO leadership was taken by surprise by the scale of the strike but quickly tried to capitalize on it. 

The new political consciousness born from the strike helped motivate the SWAPO Youth League to campaign against the imposition of the Bantustan policy in the north. The increasing resistance within the country to South African rule, and the threat of further mass action, undoubtedly played a part in the Vorster government’s decision to shift ground and accept the idea of independence for the de facto colony. But South Africa wanted to control that process, to bring into the office an independent Namibia—a government that would support, and not challenge, South African interests. 

SWAPO was never banned in Namibia because of the international status of the territory, but its internal leadership suffered constant harassment at the hands of the South African authorities, and on a number of occasions its key officials were jailed; some of them were tortured and in September 1989 a top official was assassinated. As the increasingly vicious war in the north intensified, repression elsewhere grew harsher. 

But in the mid-1980s, thanks to the reform program of the South African government, new space opened up for protest politics. The South African government knew that without international recognition of Namibian independence, the conflict with SWAPO would not end. 

It was not prepared to implement the Western plan for a transition to independence, accepted by the United Nations in September 1978, because it would almost certainly bring into office a SWAPO government, and it sought to create in the territory an anti-SWAPO front that could form an alternative to SWAPO. It, therefore, influenced a group of internal parties to form the Multi-Party Conference (MPC) in 1983, a wider grouping than merely the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, which had won the internal election of December 1978. The MPC then pressed for the establishment of a Transitional Government of National Unity (TGNU), which came into office in June 1985. There was no new election, but to give the TGNU some legitimacy, more freedom of expression was allowed, and SWAPO began to organize as it had not been able to for over twenty years. 

It now again held mass rallies, and new leadership, returned from imprisonment on Robben Island, organized the first effective trade unions. The Namibian Union of Mineworkers under Ben Ulenga formed the backbone of the National Union of Namibian Workers, and the SWAPO Youth League gained a new lease of life. 

In the crucial year 1988, when South Africa, at last, began negotiating the implementation of the Western plan, there were widespread protests within the country, beginning in the north, where scholars at schools next to army bases protested against their proximity to the bases and called a school boycott. The school boycott spread throughout Ovamboland and into other areas, and workers began to give their support to the students. 

This growing internal crisis was one factor, argues Brian Wood, for the South African decision to go ahead with the implementation of the Western plan and to withdraw from Namibia. After a delay of over a decade, implementation began on April 1, 1989, and a large United Nations presence entered the country to supervise the election that took place in the first week of November that year. 

SWAPO emerged victoriously, but with only 57.4 percent of the vote, and not the two-thirds majority that would have enabled it to write the constitution for the new country on its own. By February 1990 the new constitution had been accepted, and the country became independent on March 21, 1990. Any account of the road to that independence must allow some space for internal resistance and mass protest in extremely difficult circumstances.

Chrysopidae (Green Lacewings)

Chrysopidae, with its 1200 recognized species, is one of the two large families of Neuroptera, second only to the Myrmeleontidae. The larvae of many chrysopid species feed on insect and mite pests of agricultural crops or horticultural plantings and because of their value in biological control, chrysopids are the most frequently studied of the Neuroptera. Adults are medium-sized to large, delicate insects with four subequal wings (forewing length 6 – 35 mm) and relatively long, filiform antennae.

In most species the adults are green with large golden eyes, but some species have black, brown, or reddish adults). Larvae vary in shape and habits; some are voracious, active, and more-or-less generalist predators, with sleek, fusiform bodies (thus the name“ aphislions”). Others are slow-moving, cryptic, trash-carrying predators with bulbous bodies, elaborate tubercles, and long, hooked setae; they are usually associated with specific types of ant-tended prey. 

Still others live in ant nests where they feed on the inhabitants; they have rotund, bulbous bodies, greatly shortened appendages, and a dense covering of stiff, hooked setae that hold protective trash on the body. Currently, the Chrysopidae comprises three subfamilies (Nothochrysinae, Apochrysinae, and Chrysopinae); all three are only weakly supported by molecular data and only the first is well defined on the basis of adult and larval characters. Systematic and comparative biological studies are needed to clarify the taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of the chrysopidtaxa and also to facilitate their use in biological control. Given the wide range of morphological and behavioral variation among chrysopid larvae, it is clear that inclusion of all life stages is crucial for advancing the systematics of the family. 

Recent studies of previously unknown larvae have led to changes in the tribal assignments and the recognition of new Neotropical genera. However, except for the European and Japanese faunae where larvae of approximately 80% of the species are described, the world’s chrysopid larvae are poorly known. The Nothochrysinae includes only nine extant genera; it is believed to be the basal chrysopid lineage, but molecular data have not confi rmed this opinion. 

Defining characteristics occur in the adult and larval stages; however, larvae from very few genera are known. Apochrysinae may be monophyletic, but more supporting data are needed. The larvae of one apochrysine species have been described, but distinguishing subfamilial traits were not apparent. 

The subfamily contains the largest and visually most spectacular green lacewings; its 13 genera are based largely on somewhat variable characters in wing venation. Biological studies are needed. The large subfamily Chrysopinae encompasses over 97% of the known chrysopid species; it includes 60 genera distributed among four tribes, at least two of which are poorly defined and probably not monophyletic. The tribe Chrysopini is the largest and least well known; it contains almost all of the lacewings of economic importance. 

As a group, the Chrysopidae is cosmopolitan; similarly, all of the subfamilies are widely distributed. Nevertheless, many of the genera have limited geographic distributions. For example, among the Apochrysinae, two genera occur only in Africa, four in the Neotropics, six in the Oriental region or Australia, and one in the eastern Palearctic. Most genera of Nothochrysinae are endemic to small geographic ranges; many species are known solely from a very few specimens. 

The genera within Chrysopinae range from cosmopolitan to narrowly endemic. Typically, chrysopid eggs are laid at the end of long stalks, either singly, in groups, or in clusters with the stalks loosely or tightly intertwined. The egg stalks can be naked or they may bear oily droplets; the droplets contain nutrients or defensive substances that protect the egg or the newly hatched larva from natural enemies. 

Larvae of some chrysopid species have fairly large prey ranges; they may feed on homopterans, lepidopteran eggs or larvae, and a variety of soft-bodied arthropods. But, contrary to popular lore, some species have evolved a very strong association with a particular type of prey. In Chrysopa , prey specialization can be restricted to a single species of prey and is based on a suite of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including maternal oviposition behavior, egg size, larval morphology and behavior, phenotypic plasticity in life-history traits, responses to natural enemies that are associated with specific prey, and phenology. 

Studies indicate that prey association, such as that in Chrysopa , and also habitat association, as shown in Chrysoperla , can evolve in a manner that is very similar to the evolution of host specifi city in phytophagous insects; there is good evidence that both can be involved in speciation. Adults of most chrysopid genera feed on honeydew and pollen; in these lacewings, the dorsal crop diverticulum has numerous tracheae and is filled with symbiotic yeast. 

These symbiotes provide essential nutrients that are deficient in the diet. Adults in a few genera are predacious. In some species, adults emit foul-smelling defensive odors when they are disturbed. Some chrysopid species are multivoltine, others are univoltine; most enter diapause and undergo dormancy (hibernation, aestivation) during unfavorable (e.g., cold, hot, or dry) seasons. 

The diapausing stage (free-living larva, prepupa, or adult) varies among lacewings and is a characteristic of the genus. Some chrysopids that diapause as adults undergo seasonal color changes that appear to refl ect the background color of their habitat during the unfavorable season. Although lacewings are not considered especially strong flyers, they can move considerable distances with the wind. 

In species that diapauses as adults, there is a seasonal pattern to movement between habitats. Photoperiod often provides very important cues for timing lacewing dormancy and seasonal movement; temperature, moisture, and food can also be signifi cant factors. The genetic basis for lacewing responses to seasonal cues has been demonstrated; some exhibit geographical variability and epistasis. Chrysopine lacewings have two modes of hearing. 

The “ear” (tympanal organ) is at the base of the radial vein in each forewing. It is the smallest tympanal organ known, and it receives the ultrasonic signals of insectivorous bats. Ultrasonic signals at low rates (1–50 pulses per second) cause the lacewing to cease flight and to fall. As the bat continues to approach, its signal increases in frequency; the high-frequency signal causes the lacewing to flip its wings open quickly and fl y, thus aiding its escape. 

The second type of hearing, the perception of low-frequency, substrate-borne sounds that are emitted during courtship, is accomplished through scolopidial organs in the legs. Such sounds are an integral part of courtship in Chrysoperla species; variation in the production and perception of these sounds may have a role in speciation. 

The endemic complex of green lacewings on the Hawaiian Islands, belonging to the genus Anomalochrysa , has evolved several unique characteristics and exhibits an extraordinary range of variation in morphology and behavior. For example, unlike any other known chrysopids, Anomalochrysa females lay sessile (unstalked) eggs, either singly or in batches. Larval body shapes range from fusiform with greatly reduced lateral tubercles and few, short setae, to flattened with well developed lateral tubercles and numerous, long, robust setae. 

In continental lineages, such broad variation is found only among genera. In some species, adults or larvae are very bright and colorful; in others they are dull or resemble bird feces. Males and females may produce conspicuously loud clicking sounds during courtship and mating; how these sounds are produced and perceived is unknown. 

Some species in the genus Chrysoperla are mass-reared for release in the biological control of agricultural and horticultural pests. Among those in North America are Chrysoperla carnea and Chrysoperla rufilabris. These species possess characteristics that are advantageous for mass-rearing. For example, adults do not require prey, but will reproduce when fed artificial diets; they can be stored for long periods without significant loss of reproductive potential; and larvae can develop when fed artifi cial or factitious prey. 

Larvae of Ceraeochrysa species, which are trash-carriers, share many of the above traits that subserve mass production. They have the added advantage of being camouflaged and thus protected from their own natural enemies, for example, ants. The role of lacewings in pest management, whether naturally occurring or augmentative, is far from fully exploited.

What Exactly is Aquaponics?

What Exactly is Aquaponics? Aquaponics is a technique that combines many of the benefits of hydroponic setups for growing fresh fruits and vegetables by leveraging fish waste as food for your indoor garden. Not only do you end up with organic produce, you also can harvest fresh fish from the comfort of your own home (depending on the type of fish used). Hydroponic systems rely on providing nutrient rich water directly to the root systems of plants. Not grown in a soil medium, these plants require elaborate plumbing systems to operate but typically produce higher yields in a shorter period of time than traditional soil farming. 

The biggest drawback to hydroponics, however, is the need to add artificial nutrient solutions on a regular basis. Because the plants are not able to draw nutrients from the soil, hydroponic farmers and gardeners need to duplicate these conditions using chemicals that allow the plants to grow. Aquaponics is very similar to hydroponics in the way nutrients are delivered to the plants. What sets aquaponics apart as a unique, futuristic solution for long-term indoor gardening is the source of the nutrients required by the plants. 

Instead of adding synthetic chemical solutions to water, aquaponics systems rely on fish waste to produce yields that can be as much as four times larger than traditional growing methods. Fish excrete solid waste as well as ammonia through their breathing process. In their natural state, these waste products are not beneficial to plant life. However, aquaponics systems rely on helpful bacteria to convert ammonia into nitrates and nitrites that can be used by the plants as food. An aquaponics system has a variety of components inherent to its design that mimic the natural order of the ecosystem throughout the world. 

Fish tanks are used to house fish while they grow to maturity. These fish are fed on a daily basis and produce solid waste and ammonia as byproducts of their metabolic process. A pump moves this water at a regular interval from the fish tanks into the grow beds of the system. These grow beds are filled with inert medium such as crushed granite, expanded clay, or a variety of synthetic materials. The ammonia-rich water floods the grow beds. Aerobic bacteria digest ammonia and produce nitrogen-based products as part of the metabolic process; leaving these helpful plant nutrients in the growing medium. Worms are usually added to the growing medium as well. 

These animals are able to break down solid fish waste into usable plant food as a result of their metabolic process. A drainage system allows water to drain back into the fish tank. The digestive processes that occur in the grow bed convert the ammonia enriched water (which is harmful to fish in large concentrations) into nitrates used by the plants. These nitrates are harmless to the fish. The process that occurs in the grow bed acts like a biofilter making the water suitable for the fish. This constant cycle of filtration and conversion mimics natural processes and represents a truly sustainable option for producing food.

Raccoon Dog

The Raccoon Dog is native to East Asia; it was brought to European Russia at the beginning of the nineteenth century and has since spread to other parts of Europe. Because of the white area around its snout, it strongly resembles a Raccoon, but the black band on its face is broken into two parts. The forehead is light, and an even lighter, almost white area stretches over the entire neck. The ears have dark borders, the back is mottled grey with dark stripes. 

The chest, belly, and legs are black, the tail is unstriped and dark on top, light underneath. The legs are all the same length. Raccoon Dog is about 60–80 cm long, and the tail measures up to 20 cm. Its height at the shoulder is 20–30 cm, and it weighs up to 10 kg. The Raccoon Dog’s thick fur exaggerates its true size. Raccoon Dogs live in deciduous or mixed forest with thick underbrush, usually near water or swamps, and in open landscapes with wet areas and areas with bush cover. 

It is not a shy animal, so you might also see it near or in inhabited areas.Raccoon Dogs do not hibernate, but like Eurasian Badgers, they remain in their den for several days if there is a severe frost or heavy snow. The prints of Raccoon Dog always show four toes set an equal distance from the central pad print, as well as clear claw marks. 

The front footprint is 4–5.5 cm long and about 4.5 cm wide, the rear footprints are somewhat smaller, 4–4.5 cm long and about 3.5 cm wide; the stride is about 40–60 cm. The tracks can resemble those of a fox, although the latter are more elongated. There is essentially no visible difference between the tracks of a domestic dog and those of a Raccoon Dog, and the latter may also be confused with the tracks of a domestic cat, even though the cat’s footprints never show claw prints. 

A male and female often hunt together, and one often sees the prints of two animals in the same place. The footprints are often found on the muddy shores of lakes or streams or in marshy areas. At the water’s edge, one may often also find paths that are regularly used by the animals.A Raccoon Dog can dig its own den, but it will also use old Eurasian Badger and fox dens, or live in natural cavities: in hollow trees, under roots, or between stones and rocks. One will almost always find the remains of prey close by. 

Raccoon Dogs live in family groups in established territories, which are, however, not defended vigorously. Like Raccoons and Eurasian Badgers, Raccoon Dogs are omnivores, but they consume mainly small rodents. The scat is somewhat twisted, 5–8 cm long, 1.5– 2 cm thick, and often contains much hair. It resembles domestic dog scat, but is left in piles—in latrines near the burrow or along the edge of territory. 

Beware! Raccoon Dog scat should not be touched since it can contain eggs of the dwarf tapeworm (transmitted by foxes), which can be dangerous to human beings. In many places in eastern Europe, this is the reason mushrooms and berries are not gathered in the wild.

CALAMUS (Acorus calamus var. angustatus)

 FAMILY Araceae

SYNONYMS Calamus aromaticus, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge. GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reed-like aquatic plant about 1 meter high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to India; the oil is mainly produced in India and Russia and to a lesser extent in Europe (except Spain), Siberia, China, Yugoslavia, and Poland (Polish and Yugoslavian oils have a uniform lasting scent).

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with the yellow flag iris which it resembles in appearance; they are botanically unrelated. There are several other varieties of aromatic sedge, mostly in the east, for example, Calamus odoratus is used in India as a medicine and perfume.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name derives from the Greek calamos meaning ‘reed’. The properties of the herb are mainly due to the aromatic oil, contained largely in the root. It used to be highly esteemed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic for fever (typhoid), nervous complaints, vertigo, headaches, dysentery, etc. It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, for ‘acute and chronic dyspepsia, gastritis, intestinal colic, anorexia, gastric ulcer.’18 In Turkey and especially in India (where it is valued as traditional medicine), it is sold as a candied rhizome for dyspepsia, bronchitis, and coughs. 

ACTIONS Anticonvulsant, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, hypotensive, insecticide, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes (and sometimes the leaves). 

CHARACTERISTICS A thick, pale yellow liquid with a strong, warm, woodyspicy fragrance; poor quality oils have a camphoraceous note. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, olibanum, patchouli, cedarwood, amyris, spice and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Beta-asarone (amounts vary depending on source: the Indian oil contains up to 80 per cent, the Russian oil a maximum of 6 per cent), also calamene, calamol, calamenene, eugenol and shyobunones. 

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin. The oil of calamus is reported to have carcinogenic properties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’

SOME POINTS OF INTEREST IN THE VERNACULAR NAMES OF BIRDS

• Many of the current English common names for birds were original or derivatives of Indian vernacular names, e.g., shama and bulbul.

• Except for Philomachus pugnax, where the male is called Ruff and the female Reeve, all the other common names in English have the same name for both the sexes. This is not so in the case of the Indian vernacular names, where the sexes have different names for quite a few species, especially among ducks, birds of prey, minivets etc., where sexual dimorphism is prominent.

• It appears that some vernacular bird names are onomatopoeic in genesis. Examples are Kaka (Tamil and Malayalam), Kaki (Telugu), Kowwa (Hindi) for crows; Kuku (Kashmiri), Kukku (Lepcha), Phuphu (Kumaon) for the Cuckoo; Tuiya tota (Hindi), Tui suga (Nepal), Tiya or Tiya tota for the Blossomheaded Parakeet and Awak or waak for the Night Heron. Others were based on the physical characters, food habits, diet or habitat the birds frequent. Examples are Naththai kuththi narai (Snail Pecking Stork), Tamil for Openbilled Stork; Peenigala Konga (Corpse Stork), Telugu for the Adjutant Stork; Tena gadda (Telugu) and Ten parandu (Tamil), both of which mean Honey Eagle, for the Honey Buzzard; and Samp mar (Snake Killer) for the Whitebellied Fishing Eagle, which feeds largely on sea snakes.

• The cormorants and gulls have the suffix of Crow added to them in some Indian languages. The cormorants are called water crows and gulls, sea crows. In the first group, it is probably due to their black colour, and in the case of gulls, it is due to its scavenging habit, crow-like raucous calls and maritime habitat

• The name used for harriers in Tamil and Telugu translates to Cat Raptor, and is apt as the faces of the species have the composure and countenance of a cat.

• Telugu names prevalent in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh (where one of the ENVIS staff had worked earlier), such as Korra koncha (Demoiselle Crane), burrlakka (quails), ratipoluka (sandgrouse), Samba kaki (Crow Pheasant), Tikka titta (meaning mad bird due to its incessant calls both during the day and night) for Red-wattled Lapwing are unrecorded in literature. We have added these to the list of names given in the table. This shows that a lot more documentation needs to be done on vernacular bird names from the different regions of the Indian subcontinent.

• In Telugu, the flamingo is known as Samudrapu chiluka, meaning sea parrot due to its parrot-like bill.

• The vernacular names for the wagtails sound more comical when translated into English. In Malayalam and Tamil, it reads as Tail Wagger, and in Telugu, Bum Wagger !

• The wagtail group is also called Vannathi kuruvi (Dhobi Bird) in Tamil as they frequent the vicinity of washermen at rivers and lakes.

• The rustic charm in naming of birds is evident in the Sindhi name for the Blackheaded Bunting, Booree, which means deaf. The reason for this name it is said, is that no amount of scaring will chase this species from crop fields.

• The White-throated Fantail Flycatcher has the apt name of Nachan (Dancer) in Marathi, which is befitting as the movements of the bird gives the impression of a delicate dancer.

• Examples of wrong pronunciation of vernacular names by outsiders are the words Chinna (meaning small) which got corrupted to Sinna (a word that does not exist in Tamil) and Kampa (meaning thorn/scrub) into Campa in Ali & Ripley’s Handbook.

• The Little Stint is called Kosu Ullan in Tamil, which translates to Mosquito Wader. Trappers in the Great Vedaranyam Swamp, Tamil Nadu say it is named due to its small size and the large flocks it forms, which from a distance look like swarms of mosquitoes.

• The cute name Rani didao gophita (Little White Water Princess) is used for the Pheasant-tailed Jacana in Cachar district, Assam.

• In Malayalam, the Black Drongo is called as Kakka tampuratti (Queen of Crows) and the Grey Drongo, Kakka tampuran (King of Crows)! Did such names originate from Kerala’s fairy tales? Does the name of Madayan (meaning fool in Tamil) for the Pond Heron also have a fable behind it?

• Artisans’ names are given or prefixed for some bird groups in the vernacular languages, due to certain characteristics of the species. Examples are tacchan kuruvi (Malayalam) and sutaar (Marathi), meaning carpenter or carpenter bird for woodpeckers; sonar (Marathi), meaning goldsmith for orioles; tambat (Marathi), meaning coppersmit for barbets; and taiyalkaran kuruvi (Tamil), darzee (Hindi) and darji (Punjabi), meaning tailor, for tailorbirds.

• It seems fascinating that there are names for nondescript groups of birds as the warblers, e.g., for the Booted Warbler in Malayalam (see Handbook). This only proves that the early Indians did pay attention to nature and birds.  

• In Telugu, the Grey Shrike is known as Kasai pitta, meaning Butcher Bird, which is what the shrike is also called in English.

• The recorded names for all the predominantly yellow coloured orioles in Hindi is Peelak, meaning the ‘the yellow one’. The absence of different names for individual species highlights the need for standardising the vernacular names of birds so that ornithology can develop in the vernacular languages. In the absence of existing names, new names will have to be coined.

• The Telugu name for the Lesser Florican is Nela nemali, meaning Ground Peacock, probably due to the presence of peacock like plumes on the head of cock floricans.

• The names in Telugu for the Bonelli’s Eagle and Booted Hawk-Eagle are Kundeli salawa and Udatala gedda, which roughly translates to Hare Raptor and Squirrel Raptor respectively. The Handbook mentions the prey of the former as large birds and hares and the latter, as small mammals (squirrels and rats) and small birds. This shows that the locals did have a good idea of natural history of these birds.